Chapter 06 · Sources
Nothing important should rest on “trust us.”
Follow the record all the way back. Keep the uncertainty attached.
The evidence should remain visible.
This is a researched synthesis and an advocacy project, not an original field investigation. We did not interview witnesses, inspect elephants or obtain confidential veterinary files. The research edition is dated 5 September 2026; individual case files describe events at their stated dates.
- Sources have different roles.
- Research describes a defined population and method. Official records establish particular government actions. Reporting can contain eyewitness accounts, responses and allegations. Campaign organizations may document important evidence while also advocating a position.
- Limits travel with the finding.
- Country, species, sample and study design matter. An association is not proof of a single cause. A legal allegation is not a conviction. A news report is not a post-mortem.
- We separate observation from interpretation.
- Repetitive movement is observable. A specific diagnosis requires more. We use reflection to explain why facts matter, without inventing an elephant’s thoughts or reconstructing unrecorded scenes.
- Access is stated honestly.
- Some papers were reviewed through abstracts and indexed full-text passages; others were read in full. These are not equivalent. The access note below identifies the basis used. A listed link is not a promise that a publisher will allow access from every location.
- Our position is explicit.
- We advocate ending elephant performances, funding lifelong care and protecting shared landscapes. These are ethical and policy judgments informed by evidence, not conclusions every cited author necessarily endorses.
The reference ledger
Every source has a direct destination and a note about its role. The numbers belong to this September 2026 research edition.
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Peer-reviewed research · 2020
Illegal capture and internal trade of wild Asian elephants in Sri Lanka ↗
Court records, archives and interviews; 55 documented cases, January 2008–December 2018. A historical minimum, not a current census.
Review basis: Abstract and indexed article excerpts.
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Reported account · 2019
Tikiri’s death following public concern over her condition ↗
Attributes the death announcement and welfare concerns to Save Elephant Foundation; records withdrawal from the closing parade.
Review basis: Full article.
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Reported account · 2019
Tikiri: welfare allegations and the temple’s explanation ↗
Includes the digestive-ailment explanation via Metro. It is a reported response, not an independently established veterinary diagnosis.
Review basis: Indexed article text.
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Official record · 2023
Transfer of Plai Sak Surin (Muthu Raja) to Thailand ↗
Official confirmation of medical transfer, the journey and cooperation between both governments. PDF, one page.
Review basis: Full document.
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Official record · 2022
Bringing Sak Surin back to Thailand for treatment ↗
Records experts’ recommendation to stop parade participation and the move to Dehiwala Zoo on 9 November 2022.
Review basis: Indexed official text.
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Advocacy account · 2019
Kanakota’s collapse during tourist rides ↗
Relays reports and Moving Animals’ investigation. No post-mortem report was reviewed; precise ride counts are omitted.
Review basis: Full article.
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Original reporting · 2020
Chained ‘prince’ suffers in silence at place of worship ↗
Local reporting on Myan Kumara / Myan Prince, including a temple spokesperson’s response to the beating footage.
Review basis: Full article.
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Original reporting · 2020
Bellanwila temple sources reject media reports ↗
Records the temple’s contention that coverage exaggerated the incident.
Review basis: Indexed article text.
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Official record · 2022
Declaration of Nadungamuwa Raja as a National Treasure ↗
Confirms his ceremonial role and death on 7 March 2022. National recognition is not a welfare assessment.
Review basis: Indexed official text.
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Court reporting · 2025
Landmark verdict in Sri Lanka’s elephant trafficking case ↗
Reports conviction, sentence and state custody of Singithi, alongside acquittals on other charges. Not the full judgment or a verified appeal history.
Review basis: Full article.
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Litigant’s account · 2021–2024
Challenge to elephant release and registration regulations · CA WRT 423/21 ↗
The organization’s account of its litigation. Allegations in a petition are not findings of guilt.
Review basis: Indexed organization text.
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Official record · 2021
Committee explanation of the tamed-elephant regulations ↗
Records the government’s stated aims for the 19 August 2021 gazette: welfare, registration and assistance to court proceedings.
Review basis: Indexed official text.
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Official record · 2026
Animal Welfare · Bill 48/2026 · 20 July 2026 ↗
Official register verifies publication of the proposal. Gazette publication is not enactment; no claim here that the bill is law.
Review basis: Indexed official register; direct retrieval intermittent.
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Original reporting · 2026
Culture, welfare and politics clash over Sri Lanka’s animal welfare bill ↗
Interviews with veterinarians, advocates and legal observers; the latest substantive legislative reporting reviewed for this edition.
Review basis: Full article.
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Historical expert account · 2002
The care and management of domesticated Asian elephants in Sri Lanka ↗
Describes husbandry, mahout livelihoods and traditional training. Historical practice is not proof of every elephant’s individual experience today.
Review basis: Full chapter.
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Advocacy investigation · 2026
Elephant chaining in Sri Lanka’s festivals and tourism ↗
Firsthand investigation summarized by the campaigning organization. Documents observed conditions; not a representative national prevalence survey.
Review basis: Full organization investigation account.
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Peer-reviewed research · 2011
The dynamics of social networks among female Asian elephants ↗
286 identified adult females observed over 20 months in Udawalawe, Sri Lanka. Association networks, not a census of family relationships.
Review basis: Abstract and indexed article text.
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Peer-reviewed research · 2006
Self-recognition in an Asian elephant ↗
Three adult females; Happy passed the mark test. A small experiment demonstrating a capacity, not a test of every elephant.
Review basis: Abstract and indexed article text.
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Peer-reviewed research · 2011
Elephants know when they need a helping trunk in a cooperative task ↗
Twelve Asian elephants in Thailand; coordinated rope pulling and delayed-partner tests.
Review basis: Abstract and indexed article text.
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Peer-reviewed research · 2014
Asian elephants reassure others in distress ↗
Thailand camp observations comparing behavior following distress with control periods. Supports reassurance; cannot reveal subjective experience directly.
Review basis: Abstract and indexed full-text excerpts.
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Peer-reviewed research · 2024
African elephants address one another with individually specific name-like calls ↗
Wild African savannah elephants in Kenya; acoustic analysis and playback experiments. Do not relabel this an Asian-elephant finding.
Review basis: Abstract and authors’ research summary.
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Peer-reviewed research · 2022
Dead calf carrying and other responses to death in Asian elephants ↗
Video-based study of 25 cases, including five of dead-calf carrying. Opportunistic footage cannot establish frequency or a human-like concept of death.
Review basis: Abstract and indexed full-text excerpts.
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Peer-reviewed research · 2018
Age-specific mortality in wild-caught and captive-born Asian elephants ↗
5,150 timber elephants in Myanmar. Measures mortality; does not directly measure decade-long stress-hormone elevation.
Review basis: Full article.
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Peer-reviewed research · 2020
Taming age mortality in semi-captive Asian elephants ↗
1,947 calves at taming age across 43 years in Myanmar. Observational association; separation, weaning and training overlap.
Review basis: Full article.
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Peer-reviewed research · 2016
The days and nights of zoo elephants: stereotypic behavior ↗
89 elephants at 39 North American zoos. Social factors predicted repetitive behavior; not a diagnostic test for individual Sri Lankan elephants.
Review basis: Abstract and indexed full-text excerpts.
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Peer-reviewed research · 2016
Housing and demographic risks for elephant foot and musculoskeletal health ↗
Clinical and environmental data from North American zoos; associations with hard surfaces, not proof of causation in a specific procession.
Review basis: Abstract and indexed paper text.
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Peer-reviewed research · 2026
Temporal improvements in elephant longevity challenge earlier zoo-survival conclusions ↗
Records from 1960–2024; population survival improved. Longevity and quality of life are different measures.
Review basis: Abstract, methods and discussion excerpts.
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Peer-reviewed research · 2025
Post-release adaptation of orphan elephants in Sri Lanka ↗
Ten rehabilitated elephants aged 6–8, followed before and after release. Stress-related hormone metabolites normalized within about three weeks; not evidence that every captive adult can be released.
Review basis: Abstract and indexed full-text excerpts.
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Peer-reviewed research · 2019 online · 2021 issue
First country-wide survey of the Endangered Asian elephant in Sri Lanka ↗
Distribution survey: elephants in 59.9% of the island; people resident in 69.4% of elephant range. These are area measures, not population shares.
Review basis: Indexed primary paper.
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National action plan · 2020
National Action Plan for the Mitigation of Human–Elephant Conflict ↗
Explains village and seasonal crop fences and why fencing elephants into protected areas has failed. Hosted by Centre for Conservation and Research.
Review basis: Primary plan excerpts.
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Implementation account · Accessed 2026
Community-based seasonal electric fencing programme ↗
Describes planned seasonal fencing with farmer participation. A programme account, not independent evidence that every installation succeeded.
Review basis: Indexed official project text.
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Programme record · 2021
Madhavi’s release from the Elephant Transit Home ↗
Records rescue as a young orphan in 2016 and release with other rescued elephants. The organization reports on a programme it supports.
Review basis: Indexed annual-report passage.
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Advocacy research · 2026
Assessment of Thailand’s elephant tourism industry ↗
2,849 elephants at 236 Thailand venues; 69% assessed in poor or unacceptable conditions. Must not be presented as Sri Lankan prevalence.
Review basis: Organization’s report summary.
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Welfare guidance · Accessed 2026
Elephant tourism guide: evaluating sanctuary claims ↗
Advocates observation-led experiences and avoiding tourist contact. Guidance from an animal-welfare organization, not a legal certification.
Review basis: Indexed organization guidance.
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Programme record · 2014
Changes to night care at Sri Lanka’s Elephant Transit Home ↗
Reports that staffing and changes to night care allowed night tethering to stop. Historical operational improvement, not a current facility inspection.
Review basis: Indexed annual-report passage.
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Peer-reviewed research · 2013
Demographic variables for wild Asian elephants using longitudinal observations ↗
Six years of observations at Udawalawe. Mean first reproduction at 13.4 years; median interval between births about six years. Population-specific estimates.
Review basis: Primary paper abstract and indexed text.
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Peer-reviewed research · 2016
Nearby grandmother enhances calf survival and reproduction in Asian elephants ↗
Myanmar timber-elephant records associate nearby grandmothers with benefits for young mothers and calves. Observational, not random assignment.
Review basis: Abstract and indexed article text.
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Peer-reviewed research · 2024
Asian elephant calf physiology and mahout perspectives during taming in Myanmar ↗
41 calves and 16 controls; physiological measures and mahout interviews. Different measures recovered over different periods; does not establish universal lifelong damage.
Review basis: Authors’ repository copy, abstract and indexed text.
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Peer-reviewed research · 2012
Problem-elephant translocation: translocating the problem and the elephant? ↗
GPS monitoring of 16 translocations in Sri Lanka. Examines conflict-elephant relocation, not rehabilitation of orphaned calves.
Review basis: Abstract and indexed primary paper.
Corrections made for this edition
A source-led project should correct its own record. The revision changed these substantive points:
- Species: name-like calling is identified as a finding in African savannah elephants, not demonstrated here in Sri Lankan elephants.
- What was measured: the 2018 capture study measured mortality, not a decade of continuously elevated stress hormones.
- Legal precision: Singithi’s trial outcome includes acquittals on other charges; a pending proposal is not described as enacted law.
- Dates: Myan Prince’s case is tied to the January 2020 reporting reviewed.
- Unestablished details: definitive causes of death, precise ride counts and blanket claims that no prosecution ever occurred have been removed where the reviewed record did not establish them.
- Science: universal claims about reduced captive lifespan and a general PTSD prevalence figure have been replaced by findings with defined populations and limitations.
- Conservation: the proposal now accounts for shared landscapes and community safety instead of assuming all elephants can be confined to parks.
Send a correction with the specific passage, a dated source and an explanation of what it changes to ElephantLedger@proton.me. Stronger evidence should change the page.
Photographs are context, not interchangeable proof.
The site reuses its existing, self-hosted photographs with photographer and Creative Commons licence credits. A general procession photograph is not presented as an image of Tikiri. No generated image or staged reconstruction is used as documentary evidence. The well-known news photographs of individual cases are not reproduced without permission.
Resizing and compression were recorded in the original image manifest. Historical artwork remains in the repository but is not used to illustrate a modern incident. No photographer or cited author is represented as endorsing this project.